Wavelets to detect trends and variability of mini hydropower generations—Insights from Sri Lanka

Authors

Article ID: 733
136 Views

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18686/cest733

Keywords:

climate-sensitive renewable energy; continuous wavelet transforms (CWT); Mann-Kendall trend analysis; mini-hydropower generation; seasonal and multi-scale variability; wavelet-based time–frequency analysis

Abstract

Mini hydropower generation is strongly seasonal and can exhibit non-stationary variability that complicates planning in run-of-river systems. This study investigates monthly electricity generation (kWh) from three grid-connected mini hydropower plants in Sri Lanka, namely Erathna, Denawaka Ganga, and Kiriwaneliya, using records spanning from Jan 2015 to Oct 2025. The analysis was conducted at both overall and seasonal scales based on four climate seasons of Sri Lanka: Northeast Monsoon, Southwest Monsoon, and two inter-monsoon periods. Long-term monotonic trends were assessed using the Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s slope, with robustness checks for commissioning-year effects and multiplicity across seasonal subsets. Time-frequency structure was examined using the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) with a Morlet mother wavelet (), an AR (1) red noise background, 95% pointwise significance contours, and a cone of influence (COI) to delineate regions affected by finite-length edge effects. Across all sites, wavelet power indicates a persistent annual band consistent with monsoon-driven seasonality. The Denawaka Ganga shows an increasing trend (Sen slope = 7,215 kWh/month; p = 0.0019), although significance weakens when the first two operational years are excluded (p = 0.063), suggesting possible commissioning-related effects. After false discovery rate control, seasonal subset trends do not remain statistically significant and are treated as exploratory. These results highlight that robust inference about multi-year periodicities from decade-scale monthly records requires careful interpretation outside the COI, together with red noise significance testing.

Downloads

Published

2026-05-26

How to Cite

Amarakoon, D., Fonseka, P., Herath, M., & Rathnayake, U. (2026). Wavelets to detect trends and variability of mini hydropower generations—Insights from Sri Lanka. Clean Energy Science and Technology, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.18686/cest733

Issue

Vol. 4 No. 3 (2026): In progress

Section

Article

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Dilmi Amarakoon, Panchali Fonseka, Madhawa Herath, Upaka Rathnayake

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2021—The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press; 2023. doi: 10.1017/9781009157896 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896

2. Kyriakopoulos GL, Streimikiene D, Baležentis T. Addressing challenges of low-carbon energy transition. Energies. 2022; 15(15): 5718. doi: 10.3390/en15155718 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155718

3. Kyei SK, Boateng HK, Frimpong AJ. Renewable energy innovations: Fulfilling SDG targets. Clean Energy. 2025; 9(2): 190–203. doi: 10.1093/ce/zkae109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkae109

4. Miłek D, Nowak P, Latosińska J. The development of renewable energy sources in the European Union in the light of the European Green Deal. Energies. 2022; 15(15): 5576. doi: 10.3390/en15155576 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155576

5. Bórawski P, Wyszomierski R, Bełdycka-Bórawska A, et al. Development of renewable energy sources in the European Union in the context of sustainable development policy. Energies. 2022; 15(4): 1545. doi: 10.3390/en15041545 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041545

6. Li M, He N. Carbon intensity of global existing and future hydropower reservoirs. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022; 162: 112433. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112433 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112433

7. Wasti A, Ray P, Wi S, et al. Climate change and the hydropower sector: A global review. WIREs Climate Change. 2022; 13(2): e757. doi: 10.1002/wcc.757 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.757

8. Marcinkowski P. Large-scale assessment of hydropower potential: Current state and future projections for Poland. Energy. 2025; 328: 136700. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2025.136700 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.136700

9. Hao S, Wörman A, Brandimarte L. The impact of hydroclimate-driven periodic runoff on hydropower production and management. Scientific Reports. 2024; 14(1): 25967. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-76461-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76461-3

10. Hatamkhani A, Moridi A, Haghighi AT. An integrated approach for assessing the economic impact of climate change on hydropower systems. Energy. 2025; 319: 134990. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2025.134990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.134990

11. Gyanwali K, Adhikari P, Khanal S, et al. Integrating glacio-hydrological and power grid models to assess the climate-resiliency of high mountain hydropower in Nepal. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2023; 183: 113433. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113433 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113433

12. Soomro S, Soomro AR, Batool S, et al. How does the climate change effect on hydropower potential, freshwater fisheries, and hydrological response of snow on water availability? Applied Water Science. 2024; 14: 65. doi: 10.1007/s13201-023-02070-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-02070-6

13. Zhao X, Huang G, Li Y, et al. Responses of hydroelectricity generation to streamflow drought under climate change. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2023; 174: 113141. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.113141 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.113141

14. Tayyeh HK, Mohammed R, Hussein AM, et al. Analysis the impact of hydrological flow patterns on hydropower generation in Haditha dam reservoir. Scientific Reports. 2026; 16: 3356. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-33263-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33263-5

15. Li Q, Wang Q. Forecasting hydropower generation with a novel multivariate grey model considering compound extreme weather events. Energy Conversion and Management. 2026; 348: 120625. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120625 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120625

16. Gulakhmadov A, Chen X, Gulahmadov N, et al. Modeling of historical and future changes in temperature and precipitation in the Panj River Basin in Central Asia under the CMIP5 RCP and CMIP6 SSP scenarios. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1): 3037. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-86366-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86366-4

17. Romshoo SA, Marazi A. Impact of climate change on snow precipitation and streamflow in the Upper Indus Basin ending twenty-first century. Climatic Change. 2022; 170: 6. doi: 10.1007/s10584-021-03297-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03297-5

18. Sham FAF, El-Shafie A, Jaafar WZW, et al. Advances in AI-based rainfall forecasting: A comprehensive review of past, present, and future directions with intelligent data fusion and climate change models. Results in Engineering. 2025; 27: 105774. doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2025.105774 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.105774

19. Ankrah J, Monteiro A, Madureira H. Extreme temperature and rainfall events and future climate change projections in the coastal savannah agroecological zone of Ghana. Atmosphere. 2023; 14(2): 386. doi: 10.3390/atmos14020386 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020386

20. Tamm O, Saaremäe E, Rahkema K, et al. The intensification of short-duration rainfall extremes due to climate change—Need for a frequent update of intensity–duration–frequency curves. Climate Services. 2023; 30: 100349. doi: 10.1016/j.cliser.2023.100349 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2023.100349

21. You Q, Jiang Z, Yue X, et al. Recent frontiers of climate changes in East Asia at global warming of 1.5 °C and 2 °C. NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science. 2022; 5(1): 80. doi: 10.1038/s41612-022-00303-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-022-00303-0

22. Othman MEF, Sidek LM, Basri H, et al. Climate challenges for sustainable hydropower development and operational resilience: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2025; 209: 115108. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2024.115108 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.115108

23. Kemarau R, Harun SN, Sa'adi Z, et al. Transforming hydropower: An in-depth systematic review of climate change impacts. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2025; 219: 115890. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115890 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115890

24. Jain K, Gangopadhyay M, Mukhopadhyay K. Prospects and challenges of green bonds in renewable energy sector: Case of selected Asian economies. Journal of Sustainable Finance and Investment. 2024; 14(3): 708–731. doi: 10.1080/20430795.2022.2034596 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20430795.2022.2034596

25. Sharma A, Dharwal M, Kumari T. Renewable energy for sustainable development: A comparative study of India and China. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2022; 60: 788–790. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.242 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.242

26. Chen XH, Tee K, Elnahass M, et al. Assessing the environmental impacts of renewable energy sources: A case study on air pollution and carbon emissions in China. Journal of Environmental Management. 2023; 345: 118525. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118525 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118525

27. Attanayake K, Wickramage I, Samarasinghe U, et al. Renewable energy as a solution to climate change: Insights from a comprehensive study across nations. PLoS One. 2024; 19(6): e0299807. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0299807 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299807

28. Ratnasingam G. Application of alternative energy sources as a sustainable strategy in Sri Lanka: Cases review. JURISMA: Jurnal Riset Bisnis dan Manajemen. 2023; 13(2): 217–236. doi: 10.34010/jurisma.v13i2.11020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.34010/jurisma.v13i2.11020

29. Dasanayaka CH, Perera YS, Abeykoon C. Investigating the effects of renewable energy utilization towards the economic growth of Sri Lanka: A structural equation modelling approach. Clean Engineering and Technology. 2022; 6: 100377. doi: 10.1016/j.clet.2021.100377 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2021.100377

30. Koswatte I, Iddawala J, Kulasekara R, et al. Can Sri Lanka be a net-zero nation by 2050? Current renewable energy profile, opportunities, challenges, and recommendations. Cleaner Energy Systems. 2024; 8: 100126. doi: 10.1016/j.cles.2024.100126 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cles.2024.100126

31. Samarakoon LP. What broke the pearl of the Indian Ocean? The causes of the Sri Lankan economic crisis and its policy implications. Journal of Financial Stability. 2024; 70: 101213. doi: 10.1016/j.jfs.2023.101213 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfs.2023.101213

32. Wickramasinghe D, Amarakoon V, Madawala Y, et al. Legal and policy developments for effective disaster management: A review of disaster laws and policies in Sri Lanka. In: Disaster Law. Springer; 2025. pp. 271–291. doi: 10.1007/978-981-97-7374-9_17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-7374-9_17

33. Amaratunga D, Kodituwakku L. Cyclone Ditwah: What next for Sri Lanka beyond the storm. Progress in Disaster Science. 2026; 29: 100518. doi: 10.1016/j.pdisas.2026.100518 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2026.100518

34. Enescu D, Ciocia A, Galappaththi UIK, et al. Energy tariff policies for renewable energy development: Comparison between selected European countries and Sri Lanka. Energies. 2023; 16(4): 1727. doi: 10.3390/en16041727 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041727

35. Colambage DP, Wijayapala WDAS, Siyambalapitiya T. Seasonal and diurnal electricity costing: A case study of Sri Lanka. Next Energy. 2025; 8: 100375. doi: 10.1016/j.nxener.2025.100375 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2025.100375

36. Selvarajah H, Koike T, Rasmy M, et al. Development of an integrated approach for the assessment of climate change impacts on the hydro-meteorological characteristics of the Mahaweli River Basin, Sri Lanka. Water. 2021; 13(9): 1218. doi: 10.3390/w13091218 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091218

37. Quealy HM, Paranage K. The living legacies of mega water-development projects: Power, politics, and the afterlives of Sri Lanka’s Mahaweli development project. Geoforum. 2024; 157: 104147. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104147

38. Jayasinghe J, Ekanayake P, Panahatipola O, et al. Forecasting the power generation at renewable power plants in Sri Lanka using regression trees. Results in Engineering. 2024; 22: 102111. doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102111

39. Tobias W, Manfred S, Klaus J, et al. The future of alpine run-of-river hydropower production: Climate change, environmental flow requirements, and technical production potential. Science of the Total Environment. 2023; 890: 163934. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163934

40. Gutierrez L, Huerta A, Llauca H, et al. Assessment of run-of-river and hydropower plants in Peru: Current and potential sites, historical variability (1981–2020), and climate change projections (2035–2100). Climate. 2025; 13(6): 125. doi: 10.3390/cli13060125 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060125

41. Kayitesi NM, Guzha AC, Mariethoz G. Impacts of land use land cover change and climate change on river hydro-morphology—A review of research studies in tropical regions. Journal of Hydrology. 2022; 615: 128702. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128702 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128702

42. Sojka M. Directions and extent of flows changes in Warta River Basin (Poland) in the context of the efficiency of run-of-river hydropower plants and the perspectives for their future development. Energies. 2022; 15(2): 439. doi: 10.3390/en15020439 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020439

43. Perera A, Rathnayake U. Impact of climate variability on hydropower generation in an un-gauged catchment: Erathna run-of-the-river hydropower plant, Sri Lanka. Applied Water Science. 2019; 9(3): 57. doi: 10.1007/s13201-019-0925-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0925-9

44. Senanayake S, Pradhan B. Predicting soil erosion susceptibility associated with climate change scenarios in the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka. Journal of Environmental Management. 2022; 308: 114589. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114589

45. Obahoundje S, Diedhiou A, Kouassi KL, et al. Analysis of hydroclimatic trends and variability and their impacts on hydropower generation in two river basins in Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa) during 1981–2017. Environmental Research Communications. 2022; 4(6): 065001. doi: 10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fa

46. Ceribasi G, Ceyhunlu AI, Wałęga A, et al. Investigation of the effect of climate change on energy produced by hydroelectric power plants (HEPPs) by trend analysis method: A case study for Dogancay I–II HEPPs. Energies. 2022; 15(7): 2474. doi: 10.3390/en15072474 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072474

47. Rathnayake U. Comparison of Statistical Methods to Graphical Methods in Rainfall Trend Analysis: Case Studies from Tropical Catchments. Advances in Meteorology. 2019; 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2019/8603586 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8603586

48. Li J, Lu X, Wang X, et al. Assessing the long-term impact of cascade hydropower development on the inundation patterns of floodplain wetlands. Journal of Environmental Management. 2023; 346: 118948. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118948

49. Wang Q, Yang C, Nie L, et al. LSTM vibration prediction based on wavelet analysis and PSO for the pumped storage hydropower unit. In: Proceedings of the 2024 14th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems (ICPES); 13–16 December 2024; Chengdu, China. pp. 492–498. doi: 10.1109/ICPES63746.2024.10856605 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICPES63746.2024.10856605

50. Bin Ashraf F, Haghighi AT, Riml J, et al. A method for assessment of sub-daily flow alterations using wavelet analysis for regulated rivers. Water Resources Research. 2022; 58(1): e2021WR030421. doi: 10.1029/2021WR030421 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR030421

51. Martinez-Rios EA, Bustamante-Bello R, Navarro-Tuch S, et al. Applications of the generalized Morse wavelets: A review. IEEE Access. 2023; 11: 667–688. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232729 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3232729

52. Padakandla SR, Bhandari A, Atluri AK. Does climate impact vary across time horizons? A time–frequency analysis of climate-crop yields in India. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 2022; 36(6): 1689–1701. doi: 10.1007/s00477-021-02088-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-021-02088-9

53. Kajakokulan P, Santoso A, Zhao S. Asymmetric response of Sri Lanka northeast monsoon rainfall to El Niño/La Niña. Climate Dynamics. 2025; 63(2): 101. doi: 10.1007/s00382-025-07590-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-025-07590-2

54. Shelton S, Pushpawela B. Observed southwest monsoon rainfall changes in Sri Lanka and possible mechanisms. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment. 2022; 8(3): 4165–4175. doi: 10.1007/s40808-021-01346-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01346-7

55. Mann HB. Nonparametric tests against trend. Econometrica. 1945; 13(3): 245–259. doi: 10.2307/1907187 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1907187

56. Mugisho MJ, Ahana BS, Posite VR, et al. The efficiency paradox of discharge masking head loss in run-of-river hydropower generation. Scientific Reports. 2026; 16(1): 3048. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-36906-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-36906-3

57. Ray SL, Sahu AP, Paul JC, et al. Flow regime shifts in eastern India under changing climate: A causality and trend perspective. Earth Systems and Environment. 2026. doi: 10.1007/s41748-025-00996-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-025-00996-2

58. Fei W, Shen L, Liang L, et al. Seasonality changes in the terrestrial water cycle under different vegetation types and their attribution in the Songliao River Basin, Northeast China. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 2026; 63: 103100. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.103100 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.103100

59. Sen PK. Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s tau. Journal of the American Statistical Association. 1968; 63(324): 1379–1389. doi: 10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934

60. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology). 1995; 57(1): 289–300. doi: 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x

61. Barzola-Monteses J, Gómez-Romero J, Espinoza-Andaluz M, et al. Time series forecasting techniques applied to hydroelectric generation systems. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 2025; 164: 110424. doi: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2024.110424 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2024.110424

62. Gu X, Zhang P, Zhang W, et al. A study of drought and flood cycles in Xinyang, China, using the wavelet transform and M-K test. Atmosphere. 2023; 14(8): 1196. doi: 10.3390/atmos14081196 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14081196

63. Qin Y, Shi Q, Wang X, et al. Transient instability elimination in pump power-trip process of an ultra-high head pump-turbine based on runner high-pressure side optimization. Journal of Energy Storage. 2026; 144: 119814. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2025.119814 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.119814

64. Xiong W, Xiao N, Wang R. Similarity-aware VAE with wavelet-convolutional 1D-CNN for rolling bearing fault diagnosis. PLoS One. 2026; 21(1): e0338388. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0338388 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338388

65. Li J, Ding W, Wang H. Grey wolf optimization enhanced adaptive decomposition for trend periodic analysis of nonstationary and nonlinear hyrologic series. Scientific Reports. 2026; 16: 4839. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-35076-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35076-6

66. Kirby J. The continuous wavelet transform. In: Spectral Methods for the Estimation of the Effective Elastic Thickness of the Lithosphere. Springer; 2022. pp. 127–169. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-10861-7_4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10861-7_4

67. Ramakrishnan S. Introductory chapter: Wavelet theory and modern applications. In: Modern Applications of Wavelet Transform. IntechOpen; 2024. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.1003981 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1003981

68. Torrence C, Compo GP. A practical guide to wavelet analysis. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 1998; 79(1): 61–78. doi: 10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0061:APGTWA>2.0.CO;2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0061:APGTWA>2.0.CO;2

69. Piccarreta M, Bentivenga M, Piccarreta R. Trend analysis of hourly rainfall in the Mediterranean: A case study of the Basilicata Region, Southern Italy (2001–2024). Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 2026; 157(1): 10. doi: 10.1007/s00704-025-05939-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-025-05939-5

70. Demergasso C, Neilson JW, Tebes-Cayo C, et al. Hyperarid soil microbial community response to simulated rainfall. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2023; 14: 1202266. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1202266 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1202266

71. Gutiérrez-Hernández O, García LV. Implementing the linear adaptive false discovery rate procedure for spatiotemporal trend testing. Mathematics. 2025; 13(22): 3630. doi: 10.3390/math13223630 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/math13223630

72. Mirani KB, Ayele MA, Lohani TK, et al. Evaluation of hydropower generation and reservoir operation under climate change from Kesem Reservoir, Ethiopia. Advances in Meteorology. 2022; 2022: 3336257. doi: 10.1155/2022/3336257 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3336257

73. Abebe SA, Qin T, Zhang X, et al. Wavelet transform-based trend analysis of streamflow and precipitation in Upper Blue Nile River basin. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 2022; 44: 101251. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.101251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.101251

74. Liu H, Gulakhmadov A, Shaimuradov F. Impact analysis of climate change on hydropower resource development in the Vakhsh River Basin of Tajikistan. Hydrology. 2025; 12(11): 294. doi: 10.3390/hydrology12110294 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12110294

75. Hazet P, Foucher A, Evrard O, et al. Impact of rainfall variability on sedimentary and hydropower dynamics in a dam reservoir of southern France. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2025; 29(22): 6461–6478. doi: 10.5194/hess-29-6461-2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-6461-2025

76. Neupane P, Khanal A, Kafle M, et al. Climate change influence on hydropower energy output variability. Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research. 2025; 13(3): 251–268. doi: 10.1080/23249676.2025.2501326 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23249676.2025.2501326

77. Othman MEF, Sidek LM, Basri H, et al. Review on climate change impacts on hydropower potentials: Mitigation and adaptation strategies. Energy Reports. 2025; 14: 5558–5571. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2025.11.064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2025.11.064